Publications | Robotic Materials - Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems

Cutaneous Electrohydraulic (CUTE) Wearable Devices for Multimodal Haptic Feedback

Sanchez-Tamayo, N., Yoder, Z., Ballardini, G., Rothemund, P., Keplinger, C., Kuchenbecker, K. J.

Extended abstract (1 page) presented at the IEEE RoboSoft Workshop on Multimodal Soft Robots for Multifunctional Manipulation, Locomotion, and Human-Machine Interaction, San Diego, USA, April 2024 (misc)

Sanchez-Tamayo, N., Yoder, Z., Ballardini, G., Rothemund, P., Keplinger, C., Kuchenbecker, K. J. Cutaneous Electrohydraulic (CUTE) Wearable Devices for Multimodal Haptic Feedback Extended abstract (1 page) presented at the IEEE RoboSoft Workshop on Multimodal Soft Robots for Multifunctional Manipulation, Locomotion, and Human-Machine Interaction, San Diego, USA, April 2024 (misc)

Cutaneous Electrohydraulic Wearable Devices for Expressive and Salient Haptic Feedback

Sanchez-Tamayo, N., Yoder, Z., Ballardini, G., Rothemund, P., Keplinger, C., Kuchenbecker, K. J.

Hands-on demonstration presented at the IEEE Haptics Symposium, Long Beach, USA, April 2024 (misc)

Sanchez-Tamayo, N., Yoder, Z., Ballardini, G., Rothemund, P., Keplinger, C., Kuchenbecker, K. J. Cutaneous Electrohydraulic Wearable Devices for Expressive and Salient Haptic Feedback Hands-on demonstration presented at the IEEE Haptics Symposium, Long Beach, USA, April 2024 (misc)

Demonstration: Cutaneous Electrohydraulic (CUTE) Wearable Devices for Expressive and Salient Haptic Feedback

Sanchez-Tamayo, N., Yoder, Z., Ballardini, G., Rothemund, P., Keplinger, C., Kuchenbecker, K. J.

Hands-on demonstration presented at the IEEE RoboSoft Conference, San Diego, USA, April 2024 (misc)

Sanchez-Tamayo, N., Yoder, Z., Ballardini, G., Rothemund, P., Keplinger, C., Kuchenbecker, K. J. Demonstration: Cutaneous Electrohydraulic (CUTE) Wearable Devices for Expressive and Salient Haptic Feedback Hands-on demonstration presented at the IEEE RoboSoft Conference, San Diego, USA, April 2024 (misc)

2023

Electrochemically Controlled Hydrogels with Electrotunable Permeability and Uniaxial Actuation

Benselfelt, T., Shakya, J., Rothemund, P., Lindström, S. B., Piper, A., Winkler, T. E., Hajian, A., Wågberg, L., Keplinger, C., Hamedi, M. M.

Advanced Materials, 35(45):2303255, Wiley-VCH GmbH, November 2023 (article)

Abstract

The unique properties of hydrogels enable the design of life-like soft intelligent systems. However, stimuli-responsive hydrogels still suffer from limited actuation control. Direct electronic control of electronically conductive hydrogels can solve this challenge and allow direct integration with modern electronic systems. An electrochemically controlled nanowire composite hydrogel with high in-plane conductivity that stimulates a uniaxial electrochemical osmotic expansion is demonstrated. This materials system allows precisely controlled shape-morphing at only −1 V, where capacitive charging of the hydrogel bulk leads to a large uniaxial expansion of up to 300%, caused by the ingress of ≈700 water molecules per electron–ion pair. The material retains its state when turned off, which is ideal for electrotunable membranes as the inherent coupling between the expansion and mesoporosity enables electronic control of permeability for adaptive separation, fractionation, and distribution. Used as electrochemical osmotic hydrogel actuators, they achieve an electroactive pressure of up to 0.7 MPa (1.4 MPa vs dry) and a work density of ≈150 kJ m−3 (2 MJ m−3 vs dry). This new materials system paves the way to integrate actuation, sensing, and controlled permeation into advanced soft intelligent systems.

2023

Benselfelt, T., Shakya, J., Rothemund, P., Lindström, S. B., Piper, A., Winkler, T. E., Hajian, A., Wågberg, L., Keplinger, C., Hamedi, M. M. Electrochemically Controlled Hydrogels with Electrotunable Permeability and Uniaxial Actuation Advanced Materials, 35(45):2303255, Wiley-VCH GmbH, November 2023 (article)

Hydraulically Amplified Self-healing Electrostatic Actuators

Keplinger, C. M., Acome, E. L., Kellaris, N. A., Mitchell, S. K.

(US Patent 11795979B2), October 2023 (patent)

Abstract

An electro-hydraulic actuator includes a deformable shell defining an enclosed internal cavity and containing a liquid dielectric, first and second electrodes on first and second sides, respectively, of the enclosed internal cavity. An electrostatic force between the first and second electrodes upon application of a voltage to one of the electrodes draws the electrodes towards each other to displace the liquid dielectric within the enclosed internal cavity. The shell includes active and inactive areas such that the electrostatic forces between the first and second electrodes displaces the liquid dielectric within the enclosed internal cavity from the active area of the shell to the inactive area of the shell. The first and second electrodes, the deformable shell, and the liquid dielectric cooperate to form a self-healing capacitor, and the liquid dielectric is configured for automatically filling breaches in the liquid dielectric resulting from dielectric breakdown.

Keplinger, C. M., Acome, E. L., Kellaris, N. A., Mitchell, S. K. Hydraulically Amplified Self-healing Electrostatic Actuators (US Patent 11795979B2), October 2023 (patent)

High Strain Peano Hydraulically Amplified Self-Healing Electrostatic (HASEL) Transducers

Keplinger, C. M., Wang, X., Mitchell, S. K.

(US Patent App. 18/138,621), August 2023 (patent)

Abstract

High strain hydraulically amplified self-healing electrostatic transducers having increased maximum theoretical and practical strains are disclosed. In particular, the actuators include electrode configurations having a zipping front created by the attraction of the electrodes that is configured orthogonally to a strain axis along which the actuators. This configuration produces increased strains. In turn, various form factors for the actuator configuration are presented including an artificial circular muscle and a strain amplifying pulley system. Other actuator configurations are contemplated that include independent and opposed electrode pairs to create cyclic activation, hybrid electrode configurations, and use of strain limiting layers for controlled deflection of the actuator.

Keplinger, C. M., Wang, X., Mitchell, S. K. High Strain Peano Hydraulically Amplified Self-Healing Electrostatic (HASEL) Transducers (US Patent App. 18/138,621), August 2023 (patent)

A Multifunctional Soft Robotic Shape Display with High-speed Actuation, Sensing, and Control

Johnson, B. K., Naris, M., Sundaram, V., Volchko, A., Ly, K., Mitchell, S. K., Acome, E., Kellaris, N., Keplinger, C., Correll, N., Humbert, J. S., Rentschler, M. E.

Nature Communications, 14(1), July 2023 (article)

Abstract

Shape displays which actively manipulate surface geometry are an expanding robotics domain with applications to haptics, manufacturing, aerodynamics, and more. However, existing displays often lack high-fidelity shape morphing, high-speed deformation, and embedded state sensing, limiting their potential uses. Here, we demonstrate a multifunctional soft shape display driven by a 10 × 10 array of scalable cellular units which combine high-speed electrohydraulic soft actuation, magnetic-based sensing, and control circuitry. We report high-performance reversible shape morphing up to 50 Hz, sensing of surface deformations with 0.1 mm sensitivity and external forces with 50 mN sensitivity in each cell, which we demonstrate across a multitude of applications including user interaction, image display, sensing of object mass, and dynamic manipulation of solids and liquids. This work showcases the rich multifunctionality and high-performance capabilities that arise from tightly-integrating large numbers of electrohydraulic actuators, soft sensors, and controllers at a previously undemonstrated scale in soft robotics.

Johnson, B. K., Naris, M., Sundaram, V., Volchko, A., Ly, K., Mitchell, S. K., Acome, E., Kellaris, N., Keplinger, C., Correll, N., Humbert, J. S., Rentschler, M. E. A Multifunctional Soft Robotic Shape Display with High-speed Actuation, Sensing, and Control Nature Communications, 14(1), July 2023 (article)

Capacitive Self-Sensing for Electrostatic Transducers with High Voltage Isolation

Correll, N., Ly, K. D., Kellaris, N. A., Keplinger, C. M.

(US Patent App. 17/928,453), June 2023 (patent)

Abstract

Transducer systems disclosed herein include self-sensing capabilities. In particular, electrostatic transducers include a low voltage electrode and a high voltage electrode. A low voltage sensing unit is coupled with the low voltage electrode of the electrostatic transducer. The low voltage sensing unit is configured to measure a capacitance of the electrostatic transducer, from which displacement of the electrostatic transducer may be calculated. High voltage drive signals received by the high voltage electrode during actuation may be isolated from the low voltage sensing unit. The isolation may be provided by dielectric material of the electrostatic transducer, a voltage suppression component, and/or a voltage suppression module comprising a low impedance ground path. In the event of an electrical failure of the transducer, the low voltage sensing unit may be isolated from high voltages.

Correll, N., Ly, K. D., Kellaris, N. A., Keplinger, C. M. Capacitive Self-Sensing for Electrostatic Transducers with High Voltage Isolation (US Patent App. 17/928,453), June 2023 (patent)

High Strain Peano Hydraulically Amplified Self-healing Electrostatic (HASEL) Transducers

Keplinger, C. M., Wang, X., Mitchell, S. K.

(US Patent 11635094), April 2023 (patent)

Abstract

Keplinger, C. M., Wang, X., Mitchell, S. K. High Strain Peano Hydraulically Amplified Self-healing Electrostatic (HASEL) Transducers (US Patent 11635094), April 2023 (patent)

A Versatile Jellyfish-Like Robotic Platform for Effective Underwater Propulsion and Manipulation

Wang, T., Joo, H., Song, S., Hu, W., Keplinger, C., Sitti, M.

Science Advances, 9(15), American Association for the Advancement of Science, April 2023, Tianlu Wang and Hyeong-Joon Joo contributed equally to this work. (article)

Abstract

Underwater devices are critical for environmental applications. However, existing prototypes typically use bulky, noisy actuators and limited configurations. Consequently, they struggle to ensure noise-free and gentle interactions with underwater species when realizing practical functions. Therefore, we developed a jellyfish-like robotic platform enabled by a synergy of electrohydraulic actuators and a hybrid structure of rigid and soft components. Our 16-cm-diameter noise-free prototype could control the fluid flow to propel while manipulating objects to be kept beneath its body without physical contact, thereby enabling safer interactions. Its against-gravity speed was up to 6.1 cm/s, substantially quicker than other examples in literature, while only requiring a low input power of around 100 mW. Moreover, using the platform, we demonstrated contact-based object manipulation, fluidic mixing, shape adaptation, steering, wireless swimming, and cooperation of two to three robots. This study introduces a versatile jellyfish-like robotic platform with a wide range of functions for diverse applications.

Wang, T., Joo, H., Song, S., Hu, W., Keplinger, C., Sitti, M. A Versatile Jellyfish-Like Robotic Platform for Effective Underwater Propulsion and Manipulation Science Advances, 9(15), American Association for the Advancement of Science, April 2023, Tianlu Wang and Hyeong-Joon Joo contributed equally to this work. (article)

YouTube video DOI [BibTex]

Biodegradable Electrohydraulic Actuators for Sustainable Soft Robots

Rumley, E. H., Preninger, D., Shagan-Shomron, A., Rothemund, P., Hartmann, F., Baumgartner, M., Kellaris, N., Stojanovic, A., Yoder, Z., Karrer, B., Keplinger, C., Kaltenbrunner, M.

Science Advances, 9(12), 2023, Ellen H. Rumley and David Preninger were co-first authors, and Christoph Keplinger and Martin Kaltenbrunner were shared corresponding authors. (article)

Abstract

Combating environmental pollution demands a focus on sustainability, in particular from rapidly advancing technologies that are poised to be ubiquitous in modern societies. Among these, soft robotics promises to replace conventional rigid machines for applications requiring adaptability and dexterity. For key components of soft robots, such as soft actuators, it is thus important to explore sustainable options like bioderived and biodegradable materials. We introduce systematically determined compatible materials systems for the creation of fully biodegradable, high-performance electrohydraulic soft actuators, based on various biodegradable polymer films, ester-based liquid dielectric, and NaCl-infused gelatin hydrogel. We demonstrate that these biodegradable actuators reliably operate up to high electric fields of 200 V/μm, show performance comparable to nonbiodegradable counterparts, and survive more than 100,000 actuation cycles. Furthermore, we build a robotic gripper based on biodegradable soft actuators that is readily compatible with commercial robot arms, encouraging wider use of biodegradable materials systems in soft robotics.

Rumley, E. H., Preninger, D., Shagan-Shomron, A., Rothemund, P., Hartmann, F., Baumgartner, M., Kellaris, N., Stojanovic, A., Yoder, Z., Karrer, B., Keplinger, C., Kaltenbrunner, M. Biodegradable Electrohydraulic Actuators for Sustainable Soft Robots Science Advances, 9(12), 2023, Ellen H. Rumley and David Preninger were co-first authors, and Christoph Keplinger and Martin Kaltenbrunner were shared corresponding authors. (article)

YouTube video DOI [BibTex]

A Soft, Fast and Versatile Electrohydraulic Gripper with Capacitive Object Size Detection

Yoder, Z., Macari, D., Kleinwaks, G., Schmidt, I., Acome, E., Keplinger, C.

Advanced Functional Materials, 23(3):2209080, 2023 (article)

Abstract

Soft robotic grippers achieve increased versatility and reduced complexity through intelligence embodied in their flexible and conformal structures. The most widely used soft grippers are pneumatically driven; they are simple and effective but require bulky air compressors that limit their application space and external sensors or computationally expensive vision systems for pick verification. In this study, a multi-material architecture for self-sensing electrohydraulic bending actuators is presented that enables a new class of highly versatile and reconfigurable soft grippers that are electrically driven and feature capacitive pick verification and object size detection. These elec-trohydraulic grippers are fast (step input results in finger closure in 50 ms), draw low power (6.5 mW per finger to hold grasp), and can pick a wide variety of objects with simple binary electrical control. Integrated high-voltage driving electronics are presented that greatly increase the application space of the grippers and make them readily compatible with commercially available robotic arms.

A Soft, Fast and Versatile Electrohydraulic Gripper with Capacitive Object Size Detection YouTube video DOI [BibTex]

Yoder, Z., Macari, D., Kleinwaks, G., Schmidt, I., Acome, E., Keplinger, C. A Soft, Fast and Versatile Electrohydraulic Gripper with Capacitive Object Size Detection Advanced Functional Materials, 23(3):2209080, 2023 (article)

A Soft, Fast and Versatile Electrohydraulic Gripper with Capacitive Object Size Detection YouTube video DOI [BibTex]

2022

Hydraulically Amplified Self-healing Electrostatic Transducers Harnessing Zipping Mechanism

Keplinger, C. M., Acome, E. L., Kellaris, N. A., Mitchell, S. K., Morrissey, T. G.

(US Patent 11486421B2), November 2022 (patent)

Abstract

Hydraulically-amplified, self-healing, electrostatic transducers that harness electrostatic and hydraulic forces to achieve various actuation modes. Electrostatic forces between electrode pairs of the transducers generated upon application of a voltage to the electrode pairs draws the electrodes in each pair towards each other to displace a liquid dielectric contained within an enclosed internal cavity of the transducers to drive actuation in various manners. The electrodes and the liquid dielectric form a self-healing capacitor whereby the liquid dielectric automatically fills breaches in the liquid dielectric resulting from dielectric breakdown. Due to the resting shape of the cavity, a zipping-mechanism allows for selectively actuating the electrodes to a desired extent by controlling the voltage supplied.

2022

Keplinger, C. M., Acome, E. L., Kellaris, N. A., Mitchell, S. K., Morrissey, T. G. Hydraulically Amplified Self-healing Electrostatic Transducers Harnessing Zipping Mechanism (US Patent 11486421B2), November 2022 (patent)

Hydraulically Amplified Self-Healing Electrostatic (HASEL) Pumps

Mitchell, S. K., Acome, E. L., Keplinger, C. M.

(US Patent App. 17/635,339), October 2022 (patent)

Abstract

A pumping system includes a conduit with an inlet region and an outlet region and a first pump coupled with the conduit between the inlet region and the outlet region. The first pump includes a first actuator chamber configured to house at least a first actuator, a first pump chamber aligned along a longitudinal axis of the conduit, wherein the first pump chamber is in fluid communication with the inlet region and the outlet region, and a first flexible diaphragm separating the first actuator chamber from the first pump chamber. Methods for operating the pumping system are also disclosed.

Mitchell, S. K., Acome, E. L., Keplinger, C. M. Hydraulically Amplified Self-Healing Electrostatic (HASEL) Pumps (US Patent App. 17/635,339), October 2022 (patent)

Hydraulically Amplified Self-healing Electrostatic Actuators

Keplinger, C. M., Acome, E. L., Kellaris, N. A., Mitchell, S. K.

(US Patent 11408452), August 2022 (patent)

Abstract

Keplinger, C. M., Acome, E. L., Kellaris, N. A., Mitchell, S. K. Hydraulically Amplified Self-healing Electrostatic Actuators (US Patent 11408452), August 2022 (patent)

A Pocket‐Sized Ten‐Channel High Voltage Power Supply for Soft Electrostatic Actuators

Mitchell, S. K., Martin, T., Keplinger, C.

Advanced Materials Technologies, 7(8):2101469, August 2022 (article)

Abstract

As soft electrostatic actuators find applications in bio-inspired robotics, compact and lightweight high voltage electronics that independently address many actuators are required. Here, a pocket-sized, battery-powered, 10-channel high voltage power supply (HVPS) is presented, which independently addresses each channel up to 10 kV. The HVPS uses one HV amplifier to create a HV rail and each output connects to the rail via custom optocouplers that are pulse-width modulated to vary their conductance. These optocouplers distribute charges to and from electrostatic devices at each output, creating a charge-controlled driving scheme that can generate independent and nearly arbitrary actuation waveforms for each channel. The HVPS weighs 250 g and measures 8.4 cm × 13.3 cm × 2 cm, about the size of a smartphone. The HVPS is characterized when driving hydraulically amplified self-healing electrostatic (HASEL) actuators. While powering a 5 nF actuator, the output of the HVPS reaches 8 kV in 100 ms and drives a 1.5 nF actuator at 100 Hz (0 to 5.4 kV). The HVPS powers an active surface consisting of an array of HASELs and generates undulatory locomotion of a soft robotic inchworm, highlighting the potential for compact HV electronics that power multi-degree-of-freedom robotic systems based on electrostatic devices.

Mitchell, S. K., Martin, T., Keplinger, C. A Pocket‐Sized Ten‐Channel High Voltage Power Supply for Soft Electrostatic Actuators Advanced Materials Technologies, 7(8):2101469, August 2022 (article)

Electro-hydraulic Rolling Soft Wheel: Design, Hybrid Dynamic Modeling, and Model Predictive Control

Ly, K., Mayekar, J. V., Aguasvivas, S., Keplinger, C., Rentschler, M. E., Correll, N.

IEEE Transactions on Robotics, 38(5):3044-3063, IEEE, May 2022 (article)

Abstract

Locomotion through rolling is attractive compared to other forms of locomotion thanks to uniform designs, high degree of mobility, dynamic stability, and self-recovery from collision. Despite previous efforts to design rolling soft systems, pneumatic and other soft actuators are often limited in terms of high-speed dynamics, system integration, and/or functionalities. Furthermore, mathematical description of the rolling dynamics for this type of robot and how the models can be used for speed control are often not mentioned. This article introduces a cylindrical-shaped shell-bulging rolling soft wheel that employs an array of 16 folded-HASEL actuators as a mean for improved rolling performance. The actuators represent the soft components with discrete forces that propel the wheel, whereas the wheel's frame is rigid but allows for smooth, continuous change in position and speed. We discuss the interplay between the electrical and mechanical design choices, the modeling of the wheel's hybrid (continuous and discrete) dynamic behavior, and the implementation of a model predictive controller (MPC) for the robot's speed. With the balance of several design factors, we show the wheel's ability to carry integrated hardware with a maximum rolling speed at 0.7 m/s (or 2.2 body lengths per second), despite its total weight of 979 g, allowing the wheel to outperform the existing rolling soft wheels with comparable weights and sizes. We also show that the MPC enables the wheel to accelerate and leverage its inherent braking capability to reach desired speeds—a critical function that did not exist in previous rolling soft systems.

Ly, K., Mayekar, J. V., Aguasvivas, S., Keplinger, C., Rentschler, M. E., Correll, N. Electro-hydraulic Rolling Soft Wheel: Design, Hybrid Dynamic Modeling, and Model Predictive Control IEEE Transactions on Robotics, 38(5):3044-3063, IEEE, May 2022 (article)

Composite Layering of Hydraulically Amplified Self-Healing Electrostatic Transducers

Keplinger, C. M., Mitchell, S. K., Kellaris, N. A., Rothemund, P.

(US Patent App. 17436455), May 2022 (patent)

Abstract

A hydraulically amplified self-healing electrostatic (HASEL) transducer includes a composite, multi-layered structure. In an example, a HASEL transducer includes a dielectric layer including at least one fluid dielectric layer. The dielectric layer includes a first side and a second side opposing the first side. The HASEL transducer further includes a first electrode disposed at the first side of the dielectric layer, a second electrode disposed at the second side of the dielectric layer, a first outer layer disposed at the first electrode opposite the dielectric layer, and a second outer layer disposed at the second electrode opposite the dielectric layer. The first outer layer and second outer layer exhibit different mechanical and electrical properties from the dielectric layer.

Keplinger, C. M., Mitchell, S. K., Kellaris, N. A., Rothemund, P. Composite Layering of Hydraulically Amplified Self-Healing Electrostatic Transducers (US Patent App. 17436455), May 2022 (patent)

Simulating Electrohydraulic Soft Actuator Assemblies Via Reduced Order Modeling

Hainsworth, T., Schmidt, I., Sundaram, V., Whiting, G. L., Keplinger, C., MacCurdy, R.

SOFT ROBOTICS. IEEE INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE. 5TH 2022. (RoboSoft 2022), pages: 21-28, Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), 2022 IEEE 5th International Conference on Soft Robotics (RoboSoft), April 2022 (conference)

Abstract

Soft robots compliment traditional rigid robots by expanding their capabilities to interact with the physical world. A robot made with compliant, soft materials can benefit from their inherent continuum mechanics to achieve interactions with the environment that a rigid robot may find difficult. This can include grasping delicate objects, navigating through variable terrain, or working alongside humans in a safer manner. The flexible, adaptable nature of soft robots provide these benefits, but they also make predicting their actuated response a difficult, computationally-intensive task. Here we provide a non-linear, reduced order model informed by collected data on hydraulically amplified self-healing electrostatic actuators (HASELs). With this reduced order model, we simulate robots comprised of multiple actuators in an effort to rapidly evaluate potential design candidates without the need for time-consuming manufacturing. The simulation leverages a reduced-order model of HASELs based on a parallel mass spring damper (MSD) representation, made of two non-linear springs, and a damper; this data-driven parameter identification aids model fidelity. We construct a robotic manipulator actuated via six HASELs and show that the simulations driven by the non-linear MSD models accurately predict the robot's physical behavior on a macro scale. While this work focuses on a specific actuator type, the approach shown here could be extended to other linearly expanding soft actuators. Using this method, soft robotic assemblies actuated via HASELs can be rapidly evaluated in simulation before a laborious manufacturing process, which in turn will allow for faster design iterations to create more effective robots.

Hainsworth, T., Schmidt, I., Sundaram, V., Whiting, G. L., Keplinger, C., MacCurdy, R. Simulating Electrohydraulic Soft Actuator Assemblies Via Reduced Order Modeling SOFT ROBOTICS. IEEE INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE. 5TH 2022. (RoboSoft 2022), pages: 21-28, Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), 2022 IEEE 5th International Conference on Soft Robotics (RoboSoft), April 2022 (conference)

Towards Enduring Autonomous Robots via Embodied Energy

Aubin, C. A., Gorissen, B., Milana, E., Buskohl, P. R., Lazarus, N., Slipher, G. A., Keplinger, C., Bongard, J., Iida, F., Lewis, J. A., Shepherd, R. F.

Nature, 602(7897):393-402, 2022 (article)

Abstract

Autonomous robots are comprised of actuation, energy, sensory, and control systems built from materials and structures that are not necessarily designed and integrated for multifunctionality. Yet, animals and other organisms that robots strive to emulate contain highly sophisticated and interconnected systems at all organizational levels, which allow multiple functions to be performed simultaneously. Herein, we examine how system integration and multifunctionality in nature inspires a new paradigm for autonomous robots that we call Embodied Energy. Currently, most untethered robots use batteries to store energy and power their operation. To extend operating times, additional battery blocks and supporting structures must be added, which increases weight and reduces efficiency. Recent advancements in energy storage techniques enable chemical or electrical energy sources to be embodied directly within the structures, materials, and mechanical systems used to create robots. This perspective highlights emerging examples of Embodied Energy, focusing on the design and fabrication principles of enduring autonomous robots.

Aubin, C. A., Gorissen, B., Milana, E., Buskohl, P. R., Lazarus, N., Slipher, G. A., Keplinger, C., Bongard, J., Iida, F., Lewis, J. A., Shepherd, R. F. Towards Enduring Autonomous Robots via Embodied Energy Nature, 602(7897):393-402, 2022 (article)

2021

Miniaturized Circuitry for Capacitive Self-sensing and Closed-loop Control of Soft Electrostatic Transducers

Ly, K., Kellaris, N., McMorris, D., Johnson, B. K., Acome, E., Sundaram, V., Naris, M., Humbert, J. S., Rentschler, M. E., Keplinger, C., Correll, N.

Soft Robotics, 8(6):673-686, Mary Ann Liebert, Inc., publishers, December 2021 (article)

Abstract

Soft robotics is a field of robotic system design characterized by materials and structures that exhibit large-scale deformation, high compliance, and rich multifunctionality. The incorporation of soft and deformable structures endows soft robotic systems with the compliance and resiliency that makes them well adapted for unstructured and dynamic environments. Although actuation mechanisms for soft robots vary widely, soft electrostatic transducers such as dielectric elastomer actuators (DEAs) and hydraulically amplified self-healing electrostatic (HASEL) actuators have demonstrated promise due to their muscle-like performance and capacitive self-sensing capabilities. Despite previous efforts to implement self-sensing in electrostatic transducers by overlaying sinusoidal low-voltage signals, these designs still require sensing high-voltage signals, requiring bulky components that prevent integration with miniature untethered soft robots. We present a circuit design that eliminates the need for any high-voltage sensing components, thereby facilitating the design of simple low cost circuits using off-the-shelf components. Using this circuit, we perform simultaneous sensing and actuation for a range of electrostatic transducers including circular DEAs and HASEL actuators and demonstrate accurate estimated displacements with errors <4%. We further develop this circuit into a compact and portable system that couples high voltage actuation, sensing, and computation as a prototype toward untethered multifunctional soft robotic systems. Finally, we demonstrate the capabilities of our self-sensing design through feedback control of a robotic arm powered by Peano-HASEL actuators.

2021

Ly, K., Kellaris, N., McMorris, D., Johnson, B. K., Acome, E., Sundaram, V., Naris, M., Humbert, J. S., Rentschler, M. E., Keplinger, C., Correll, N. Miniaturized Circuitry for Capacitive Self-sensing and Closed-loop Control of Soft Electrostatic Transducers Soft Robotics, 8(6):673-686, Mary Ann Liebert, Inc., publishers, December 2021 (article)

Flexible Seaweed-Like Triboelectric Nanogenerator as a Wave Energy Harvester Powering Marine Internet of Things

Wang, Y., Liu, X., Wang, Y., Wang, H., Wang, H., Zhang, S. L., Zhao, T., Xu, M., Wang, Z. L.

ACS Nano, 15(10):15700-15709, October 2021 (article)

Wang, Y., Liu, X., Wang, Y., Wang, H., Wang, H., Zhang, S. L., Zhao, T., Xu, M., Wang, Z. L. Flexible Seaweed-Like Triboelectric Nanogenerator as a Wave Energy Harvester Powering Marine Internet of Things ACS Nano, 15(10):15700-15709, October 2021 (article)

Supplemental Material link (url) DOI [BibTex]

Electriflow: Augmenting Books With Tangible Animation Using Soft Electrohydraulic Actuators

Purnendu, , Novack, S., Acome, E., Alistar, M., Keplinger, C., Gross, M. D., Bruns, C., Leithinger, D.

In ACM SIGGRAPH 2021 Labs, pages: 1-2, Association for Computing Machinery, SIGGRAPH 2021, August 2021 (inbook)

Abstract

We present Electriflow: a method of augmenting books with tangible animation employing soft electrohydraulic actuators. These actuators are compact, silent and fast in operation, and can be fabricated with commodity materials. They generate an immediate hydraulic force upon electrostatic activation without an external fluid supply source, enabling a simple and self-contained design. Electriflow actuators produce an immediate shape transition from flat to folded state which enabled their seamless integration into books. For the Emerging Technologies exhibit, we will demonstrate the prototype of a book augmented with the capability of tangible animation.

Purnendu, , Novack, S., Acome, E., Alistar, M., Keplinger, C., Gross, M. D., Bruns, C., Leithinger, D. Electriflow: Augmenting Books With Tangible Animation Using Soft Electrohydraulic Actuators In ACM SIGGRAPH 2021 Labs, pages: 1-2, Association for Computing Machinery, SIGGRAPH 2021, August 2021 (inbook)

Supplemental Material link (url) DOI [BibTex]

Electriflow: Augmenting Books With Tangible Animation Using Soft Electrohydraulic Actuators

Purnendu, , Novack, S., Acome, E., Alistar, M., Keplinger, C., Gross, M. D., Bruns, C., Leithinger, D.

In SIGGRAPH ’21: ACM SIGGRAPH 2021 Labs, pages: 8, ACM, New York, NY, Special Interest Group on Computer Graphics and Interactive Techniques Conference (SIGGRAPH 2021), July 2021 (inproceedings)

Abstract

Purnendu, , Novack, S., Acome, E., Alistar, M., Keplinger, C., Gross, M. D., Bruns, C., Leithinger, D. Electriflow: Augmenting Books With Tangible Animation Using Soft Electrohydraulic Actuators In SIGGRAPH ’21: ACM SIGGRAPH 2021 Labs, pages: 8, ACM, New York, NY, Special Interest Group on Computer Graphics and Interactive Techniques Conference (SIGGRAPH 2021), July 2021 (inproceedings)

Soft Electrohydraulic Actuators for Origami Inspired Shape-Changing Interfaces

Purnendu, , Acome, E., Keplinger, C., Gross, M. D., Bruns, C., Leithinger, D.

In CHI EA ’21: Extended Abstracts of the 2021 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, pages: 377, ACM, New York, NY, Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (CHI 2021), May 2021 (inproceedings)

Abstract

In this paper, we present electrohydraulic actuators for origami inspired shape-changing interfaces, which are capable of producing sharp hinge-like bends. These compliant actuators generate an immediate hydraulic force upon electrostatic activation without an external fluid supply source, are silent and fast in operation, and can be fabricated with commodity materials. We experimentally investigate the characteristics of these actuators and present application scenarios for actuating existing objects as well as origami folds. In addition, we present a software tool for the design and fabrication of shape-changing interfaces using these electrohydraulic actuators. We also discuss how this work opens avenues for other possible applications in Human Computer Interaction (HCI).

Purnendu, , Acome, E., Keplinger, C., Gross, M. D., Bruns, C., Leithinger, D. Soft Electrohydraulic Actuators for Origami Inspired Shape-Changing Interfaces In CHI EA ’21: Extended Abstracts of the 2021 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, pages: 377, ACM, New York, NY, Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (CHI 2021), May 2021 (inproceedings)

Hydraulically Amplified Self-Healing Electrostatic Transducers Harnessing Zipping Mechanism

Keplinger, C. M., Acome, E. L., Kellaris, N. A., Mitchell, S. K., Morrissey, T. G.

(US Patent 20210003149A1), January 2021 (patent)

Abstract

Keplinger, C. M., Acome, E. L., Kellaris, N. A., Mitchell, S. K., Morrissey, T. G. Hydraulically Amplified Self-Healing Electrostatic Transducers Harnessing Zipping Mechanism (US Patent 20210003149A1), January 2021 (patent)

A Triboelectric-Nanogenerator-Based Gas–Solid Two-Phase Flow Sensor for Pneumatic Conveying System Detecting

Wang, Y., Liu, D., Hu, Z., Chen, T., Zhang, Z., Wang, H., Du, T., Zhang, S. L., Zhao, Z., Zhou, T., Xu, M.

Advanced Materials Technologies, 6(5):2001270, 2021 (article)

Wang, Y., Liu, D., Hu, Z., Chen, T., Zhang, Z., Wang, H., Du, T., Zhang, S. L., Zhao, Z., Zhou, T., Xu, M. A Triboelectric-Nanogenerator-Based Gas–Solid Two-Phase Flow Sensor for Pneumatic Conveying System Detecting Advanced Materials Technologies, 6(5):2001270, 2021 (article)

Shaping the future of robotics through materials innovation

Rothemund, P., Kim, Y., Heisser, R. H., Zhao, X., Shepherd, R. F., Keplinger, C.

Nature Materials, 20(12):1582-1587, 2021 (article)

Abstract

New classes of functional soft materials show promise to revolutionize robotics. Now materials scientists must focus on realizing the predicted performance of these materials and developing effective and robust interfaces to integrate them into highly functional robotic systems that have a positive impact on human life.

Rothemund, P., Kim, Y., Heisser, R. H., Zhao, X., Shepherd, R. F., Keplinger, C. Shaping the future of robotics through materials innovation Nature Materials, 20(12):1582-1587, 2021 (article)

Spider-Inspired Electrohydraulic Actuators for Fast, Soft-Actuated Joints

Kellaris, N., Rothemund, P., Zeng, Y., Mitchell, S. K., Smith, G. M., Jayaram, K., Keplinger, C.

Advanced Science, 8(14):2100916, 2021 (article)

Abstract

The impressive locomotion and manipulation capabilities of spiders have led to a host of bioinspired robotic designs aiming to reproduce their functionalities; however, current actuation mechanisms are deﬁcient in either speed, force output, displacement, or efficiency. Here—using inspiration from the hydraulic mechanism used in spider legs—soft-actuated joints are developed that use electrostatic forces to locally pressurize a hydraulic ﬂuid, and cause ﬂexion of a segmented structure. The result is a lightweight, low-proﬁle articulating mechanism capable of fast operation, high forces, and large displacement; these devices are termed spider-inspired electrohydraulic soft-actuated (SES) joints. SES joints with rotation angles up to 70°, blocked torques up to 70 mN m, and speciﬁc torques up to 21 N m / kg are demonstrated. SES joints demonstrate high speed operation, with measured roll-off frequencies up to 24 Hz and speciﬁc power as high as 230 W/kg—similar to human muscle. The versatility of these devices is illustrated by combining SES joints to create a bidirectional joint, an artiﬁcial limb with independently addressable joints, and a compliant gripper. The lightweight, low-proﬁle design, and high performance of these devices, makes them well-suited toward the development of articulating robotic systems that can rapidly maneuver.

Kellaris, N., Rothemund, P., Zeng, Y., Mitchell, S. K., Smith, G. M., Jayaram, K., Keplinger, C. Spider-Inspired Electrohydraulic Actuators for Fast, Soft-Actuated Joints Advanced Science, 8(14):2100916, 2021 (article)

Electromechanics of Planar HASEL Actuators

Kirkman, S., Rothemund, P., Acome, E., Keplinger, C.

Extreme Mechanics Letters, 48, pages: 101408, 2021 (article)

Kirkman, S., Rothemund, P., Acome, E., Keplinger, C. Electromechanics of Planar HASEL Actuators Extreme Mechanics Letters, 48, pages: 101408, 2021 (article)

Liquid Crystal Elastomers with Enhanced Directional Actuation to Electric Fields

Fowler, H. E., Rothemund, P., Keplinger, C., White, T. J.

Advanced Materials, 33(43):2103806, 2021 (article)

Abstract

The integration of soft, stimuli-responsive materials in robotic systems is a promising approach to introduce dexterous and delicate manipulation of objects. Electrical control of mechanical response offers many benefits in robotic systems including the availability of this energy input, the associated response time, magnitude of actuation, and opportunity for self-regulation. Here, a materials chemistry is detailed to prepare liquid crystal elastomers (LCEs) with a 14:1 modulus contrast and increase in dielectric constant to enhance electromechanical deformation. The inherent modulus contrast of these LCEs (when coated with compliant electrodes) directly convert an electric field to a directional expansion of 20%. The electromechanical response of LCE actuators is observed upon application of voltage ranging from 0.5 to 6 kV. The deformation of these materials is rapid, reaching strain rates of 18% s−1. Upon removal of the electric field, little hysteresis is observed. Patterning the spatial orientation of the nematic director of the LCEs results in a 2D–3D shape transformation to a cone 8 mm in height. Individual and sequential addressing of an array of LCE actuators is demonstrated as a haptic surface.

Fowler, H. E., Rothemund, P., Keplinger, C., White, T. J. Liquid Crystal Elastomers with Enhanced Directional Actuation to Electric Fields Advanced Materials, 33(43):2103806, 2021 (article)